Punctuation is important – one misplaced comma can alter the meaning of your words and stir up a can of worms.
“Are you eating Grandma?”
(not a good idea to eat a beloved relative)
“Are you eating, Grandma?”
(add one comma and you’re asking Grandma if she’d like to eat.)
EXCLAMATION MARK !
Overuse of the exclamation mark is a no-no as far as editors are concerned. An exclamation mark is simply to imply an exclamation such as oh! or help!
Editors hate them. Unnecessary usage is like saying – my words are so wonderful!!! My jokes are so funny!!!
DO YOU KNOW YOUR COMMAS?
Vocative Comma ,
When somebody is being spoken to directly, his/her name must be separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma (or commas). Names that are being addressed directly are said to be in the 'vocative case'.
Examples:
I'll see you next Tuesday, Alan.
(Alan is being addressed. His name must be separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. The word "Alan" is said to be in the vocative case.) ('Vocative' stems from the word 'vocal'.)
…and that, your Honour, is the case for the Prosecution.
(The judge is being addressed as "your Honour". These words are in the vocative case and must be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.)
Lee, you would know all about that wouldn't you, you little adventurer?
("Lee" is being addressed by his name and as "you little adventurer". Both "Lee" and "you little adventurer" are in the vocative case.)
Oxford Comma
The 'Oxford comma' is an optional comma before the word 'and' at the end of a list: We sell books, videos, and magazines.
It's known as the Oxford comma because it was traditionally used by printers, readers, and editors at Oxford University Press. Not all writers and publishers use it, but it can clarify the meaning of a sentence when the items in a list are not single words: These items are available in black and white, red and yellow, and blue and green.
The Oxford comma is also known as the 'serial comma'.
A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly, commas make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses. Many people are uncertain about the use of commas, though, and often sprinkle them throughout their writing without knowing the basic rules. Here are the main cases when you need to use a comma:
Oxford comma and/or serial comma
You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following sentences:
Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage, and French toast.
The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions, potatoes, and carrots.
The final comma in these lists (before the word ‘and’) is known as the ‘serial comma’. Not all writers or publishers use it, but it is used by Oxford Dictionaries – some people refer to it as ‘the Oxford comma’. Using it can make your meaning clearer. Take a look at this sentence:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon and ham and cheese.
It isn’t entirely clear from this sentence whether the writer is listing three or four of their favourite sandwich fillings: is ‘ham’ one of their favourites and ‘cheese’ another, or is it ‘ham and cheese’ that they like? Adding an Oxford comma makes the meaning clear:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon, and ham and cheese.
APOSTROPHE
The poor old apostrophe, due to its misuse, has always caused angst. The pedants moan and gleefully point out shopkeepers’ errors after they have chalked up their grammatical errors outside their stores. The apostrophe can be a minefield and we can’t all be perfect, but it’s worth getting it right if we’re going to consider ourselves writers.
The main function of the apostrophe is to indicate possession e.g. John’s hat.
You have to think twice when applying the apostrophe to a plural
e.g. the boy’s job (when there is just one boy)
e.g. the boys’ job (when there are several boys)
and to mark missing letters or syllables (I’d, you’re, it’s etc.)
However: the child’s book (one child one book)
the children’s book (several children sharing one book)
the children’s books (several children several books)
the company’s chairman (one company with a chairman)
the companies’ chairmen (several companies with a chairman)
When writing the year or a decade: the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s etc.
It is just a plural i.e. not possessive and no digits or letters omitted so no apostrophe
COLON
The Oxford Book of Style says:
Think of the colon as pointing forward: from a premise to a conclusion, from a cause to an effect, from an introduction to a main point; from a general statement to an example. It fulfils the same function as words such as namely, that is, as, for example, for instance, because, as follows, and therefore:
SEMICOLON
Use a semicolon to punctuate two closely related main clauses.
e.g. The house sits in a quiet rural area; the nearby village is within easy walking distance.
Use a semicolon to punctuate the final clause when several clauses are divided by commas and you need emphasis, clarification, or a sense of separation from the main clauses. In the following sentence the first clauses relate to one establishment and the final clause mentions a body not within the school.
e.g. I’d like to thank the headmistress of Church Road Junior School, the dedicated teachers of the school, the local hardworking ladies who operate our catering departing; and the funding provided by the District Council.
HYPHENS AND DASHES
Hard hyphen: joins words together.
Soft hyphen: indicates word division when a word is broken at the end of a line.
I notice that many people use a hyphen instead of a dash when what is called for is a dash.
In the publishing world they use either the em dash or the en dash.
These are so-called because the em Dash is the width of the typeface letter M and an en dash matches the letter N.
Em Dash — you will see this one used to punctuate poetry. Check out a poetry book. It is used at the end of a line— no space between the dash and the final word indicating that the pace of the poem should continue with only a hint of an end-of-line pause rather than the definite pause of a comma.
En Dash – longer than a hyphen but half the length of an em dash
Use the en rule to indicate missing letters ME – –Y CHRI– – – – S and to write 1945–50
There are many other uses for these symbols in the publishing world. Now you are aware of them you may wish to use them. If you use a Windows operating system and type your text on Word you can find these symbols by clicking on Insert, click on symbol, click on special characters and hey presto.
PARAGRAPHS – WHEN TO START A NEW ONE
WRITING DIALOGUE
Reported Speech
Reported speech is when we write about what another person said. To do this, we can use direct speech or indirect speech.
Direct speech: 'I work in a bank,' said Daniel.
(quotation marks required – Daniel’s words are being quoted exactly as he said them.)
Indirect speech: Indirect speech: Daniel said that he worked in a bank.
(no quotations marks – Daniel is not being quoted word for word.)
QUESTION MARK
When a question mark is placed at the end of a sentence it does not require a full stop.
The double question mark ??—and the combination of ?!--should be used very sparingly.
e.g. Do you mean they’re coming today?!
Note: Did you spot the em dash in action above?
ELLIPSES
An ellipsis (three points ...) may be used to indicate a pause. Note 3 points, some make the mistake of using more.
It is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence to indicate an unfinished sentence.
e.g. The door opened slowly...
After an ellipsis the next sentence should begin with a capital letter.
There are many good books available on the finer points of English Grammar. Nowadays your computer automatically lends a helping hand via the grammar and spell check facilities. Everyone needs a good dictionary – online or hands-on virtual. Another useful publication is the classic reference book The Oxford Guide to Style, especially if you’re doing technical writing or submitting your work to a publisher as it details the accepted format for setting out text, data etc.
“Are you eating Grandma?”
(not a good idea to eat a beloved relative)
“Are you eating, Grandma?”
(add one comma and you’re asking Grandma if she’d like to eat.)
EXCLAMATION MARK !
Overuse of the exclamation mark is a no-no as far as editors are concerned. An exclamation mark is simply to imply an exclamation such as oh! or help!
Editors hate them. Unnecessary usage is like saying – my words are so wonderful!!! My jokes are so funny!!!
DO YOU KNOW YOUR COMMAS?
Vocative Comma ,
When somebody is being spoken to directly, his/her name must be separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma (or commas). Names that are being addressed directly are said to be in the 'vocative case'.
Examples:
I'll see you next Tuesday, Alan.
(Alan is being addressed. His name must be separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. The word "Alan" is said to be in the vocative case.) ('Vocative' stems from the word 'vocal'.)
…and that, your Honour, is the case for the Prosecution.
(The judge is being addressed as "your Honour". These words are in the vocative case and must be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.)
Lee, you would know all about that wouldn't you, you little adventurer?
("Lee" is being addressed by his name and as "you little adventurer". Both "Lee" and "you little adventurer" are in the vocative case.)
Oxford Comma
The 'Oxford comma' is an optional comma before the word 'and' at the end of a list: We sell books, videos, and magazines.
It's known as the Oxford comma because it was traditionally used by printers, readers, and editors at Oxford University Press. Not all writers and publishers use it, but it can clarify the meaning of a sentence when the items in a list are not single words: These items are available in black and white, red and yellow, and blue and green.
The Oxford comma is also known as the 'serial comma'.
A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly, commas make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses. Many people are uncertain about the use of commas, though, and often sprinkle them throughout their writing without knowing the basic rules. Here are the main cases when you need to use a comma:
Oxford comma and/or serial comma
You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following sentences:
Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage, and French toast.
The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions, potatoes, and carrots.
The final comma in these lists (before the word ‘and’) is known as the ‘serial comma’. Not all writers or publishers use it, but it is used by Oxford Dictionaries – some people refer to it as ‘the Oxford comma’. Using it can make your meaning clearer. Take a look at this sentence:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon and ham and cheese.
It isn’t entirely clear from this sentence whether the writer is listing three or four of their favourite sandwich fillings: is ‘ham’ one of their favourites and ‘cheese’ another, or is it ‘ham and cheese’ that they like? Adding an Oxford comma makes the meaning clear:
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon, and ham and cheese.
APOSTROPHE
The poor old apostrophe, due to its misuse, has always caused angst. The pedants moan and gleefully point out shopkeepers’ errors after they have chalked up their grammatical errors outside their stores. The apostrophe can be a minefield and we can’t all be perfect, but it’s worth getting it right if we’re going to consider ourselves writers.
The main function of the apostrophe is to indicate possession e.g. John’s hat.
You have to think twice when applying the apostrophe to a plural
e.g. the boy’s job (when there is just one boy)
e.g. the boys’ job (when there are several boys)
and to mark missing letters or syllables (I’d, you’re, it’s etc.)
However: the child’s book (one child one book)
the children’s book (several children sharing one book)
the children’s books (several children several books)
the company’s chairman (one company with a chairman)
the companies’ chairmen (several companies with a chairman)
When writing the year or a decade: the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s etc.
It is just a plural i.e. not possessive and no digits or letters omitted so no apostrophe
COLON
The Oxford Book of Style says:
Think of the colon as pointing forward: from a premise to a conclusion, from a cause to an effect, from an introduction to a main point; from a general statement to an example. It fulfils the same function as words such as namely, that is, as, for example, for instance, because, as follows, and therefore:
SEMICOLON
Use a semicolon to punctuate two closely related main clauses.
e.g. The house sits in a quiet rural area; the nearby village is within easy walking distance.
Use a semicolon to punctuate the final clause when several clauses are divided by commas and you need emphasis, clarification, or a sense of separation from the main clauses. In the following sentence the first clauses relate to one establishment and the final clause mentions a body not within the school.
e.g. I’d like to thank the headmistress of Church Road Junior School, the dedicated teachers of the school, the local hardworking ladies who operate our catering departing; and the funding provided by the District Council.
HYPHENS AND DASHES
Hard hyphen: joins words together.
Soft hyphen: indicates word division when a word is broken at the end of a line.
I notice that many people use a hyphen instead of a dash when what is called for is a dash.
In the publishing world they use either the em dash or the en dash.
These are so-called because the em Dash is the width of the typeface letter M and an en dash matches the letter N.
Em Dash — you will see this one used to punctuate poetry. Check out a poetry book. It is used at the end of a line— no space between the dash and the final word indicating that the pace of the poem should continue with only a hint of an end-of-line pause rather than the definite pause of a comma.
En Dash – longer than a hyphen but half the length of an em dash
Use the en rule to indicate missing letters ME – –Y CHRI– – – – S and to write 1945–50
There are many other uses for these symbols in the publishing world. Now you are aware of them you may wish to use them. If you use a Windows operating system and type your text on Word you can find these symbols by clicking on Insert, click on symbol, click on special characters and hey presto.
PARAGRAPHS – WHEN TO START A NEW ONE
- When you change time or location
- When a new character begins to speak
- Two other occasions when you MAY consider starting a new paragraph
- When a speech is running long: it’s not a good idea to have characters prattling on uninterrupted for pages at a stretch. When a longer speech is required you can facilitate easier reading by breaking up long speeches with moments of action and therefore split a very long paragraph. This helps to maintain reader attention and keep the story flowing.
- For effect: sometimes starting a new paragraph or allowing a single sentence to stand on its own highlights a point, gets a laugh, helps control the pace if needed. Don’t let it become a habit. This technique will only produce a dramatic effect if used sparingly.
- Each new line of dialogue is indented, and a new paragraph should be started every time a new person is speaking. Breaks in the statements of one person do not require a new paragraph.
WRITING DIALOGUE
Reported Speech
Reported speech is when we write about what another person said. To do this, we can use direct speech or indirect speech.
Direct speech: 'I work in a bank,' said Daniel.
(quotation marks required – Daniel’s words are being quoted exactly as he said them.)
Indirect speech: Indirect speech: Daniel said that he worked in a bank.
(no quotations marks – Daniel is not being quoted word for word.)
QUESTION MARK
When a question mark is placed at the end of a sentence it does not require a full stop.
The double question mark ??—and the combination of ?!--should be used very sparingly.
e.g. Do you mean they’re coming today?!
Note: Did you spot the em dash in action above?
ELLIPSES
An ellipsis (three points ...) may be used to indicate a pause. Note 3 points, some make the mistake of using more.
It is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence to indicate an unfinished sentence.
e.g. The door opened slowly...
After an ellipsis the next sentence should begin with a capital letter.
There are many good books available on the finer points of English Grammar. Nowadays your computer automatically lends a helping hand via the grammar and spell check facilities. Everyone needs a good dictionary – online or hands-on virtual. Another useful publication is the classic reference book The Oxford Guide to Style, especially if you’re doing technical writing or submitting your work to a publisher as it details the accepted format for setting out text, data etc.